Chapter 22 Ap Wprld History Review Asian Transitions

Chapter 22: The Revolution in Energy and Industry

1. The Industrial Revolution in England
   1. ​Eighteenth-Century Origins
      1. The expanding Atlantic economy of the eighteenth century served mercantilist England well and the colonial empire, helped past strong position in Latin America and in the African slave trade provided a growing market for English manufactured goods
      2. It was much cheaper to ship goods by water and no function of England was more than xx miles from navigable water and in the 1770s, a canal-building boom enhanced this natural advantage and provided easy movement of England'southward enormous deposits of iron and coal, disquisitional raw materials in Europe's early industrial age
      3. Agriculture played a central role in bringing about the Industrial Revolution; English farmers 2nd only to Dutch in 1700, and continually adopted new methods
         1. The upshot, especially earlier 1760, was a menstruum of bountiful crops and depression food prices and families could spend more on manufactured appurtenances (instead of all food)
         2. Demand for appurtenances within United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland complemented the need from the colonies
      4. England had other assets that gave ascent to industrial leadership
         1. England had an effective cardinal band and well-adult credit markets
         2. The monarchy and the aristocratic oligarchy, which had jointly ruled since 1688, provided stable government and permit the domestic economy operate with few controls, encouraging personal initiative, technical change, and a complimentary market
         3. English language had a large form of hired agronomical laborers, rural proletarians whose numbers increased during the enclosure movement and these rural wage earners were relatively mobile and along with cottage workers formed a potential industrial labor force for capitalist entrepreneurs
      5. All the factors combined to initiate the Industrial Revolution, coined by people in the 1830s to describe the burst of major inventions and technical alter; technical revolution together with an impressive quickening annual rate of industrial growth
         1. Industry had grown at only 0.7 percentage between 1700 and 1760, while manufacture grew at the rate of iii percent betwixt 1801 and 1831 (industrial transformation)
         2. The decisive quickening of growth probably came in the 1780s, after the American state of war for independence (longer procedure than the political revolutions)
      6. The Industrial Revolution was not complete in England until 1850 but had no real impact on the continental countries until after 1815
   2. The Beginning Factories
      1. The kickoff decisive quantum of the I.R. was the creation of the world'southward commencement large factories in the English cotton fiber textile industry and technological innovations in the manufacture of cotton fiber textile led to a organisation of production and social relationships
      2. The putting-out arrangement of merchant commercialism was expanding beyond Europe in the eighteenth century (most adult in England) but nether the force per unit area of growing demand, the system'south limitations first began to outweigh its advantages (subsequently 1760)
      3. Abiding shortage of thread in the textile manufacture focused attention of improving spinning, every bit wool and flax was hard to spin with the improved machines
         1. Cotton was different and cotton textiles had offset been imported into England from India and by 1760, in that location was a tiny domestic industry in northern England
         2. Afterwards many experiments, James Hargreaves invented his cotton fiber-spinning jenny in near 1765 and barber-turned-manufacturer named Richard Arkwright invented (or mayhap pirate) another kind of spinning motorcar, the water frame
         3. Hargreaves's jenny was only, inexpensive, and hand operate; up to 24 spindles were mounted on a sliding carriage and each spindle spun a fine thread when the woman moved the carriage back and forth and turned a cycle to supply power
         4. Arkwright'due south water frame caused a capacity of several hundred spindles and demanded water ability; h2o frame required specialized mills, only could only spin coarse, stiff thread, which was put out for respinning on cottage jennies
         5. Samuel Crompton invented another technique around 1790 that required more than power than the human arm and cotton spinning was full-bodied in factories
      4. Cotton goods became much cheaper and were bought past all classes and families in cottage manufacture could at present obtain thread spun on the jenny or obtain it from a mill
      5. Wages of weavers, how hard pressed to keep up with the spinners, rose markedly until near 1792 and were among the best-paid workers in England
      6. I upshot of the prosperity was a big numbers of agricultural laborers became handloom weavers and was an example of how further mechanization threatened certain groups of handicraft workers, for mechanics and capitalists soon sought to invent a power loom to salvage on labor costs; Edmund Cartwright invented the power loom in 1785 and handloom weavers received skilful wages until at to the lowest degree 1800
      7. Working atmospheric condition in the early factories were worse than those of cottage workers
         1. Until the belatedly 1780s, most English factories were in rural areas, where they had access to waterpower and employed small percentage of all cotton textile workers
         2. People were reluctant to work in them because they had depression pay and manufactory owners turned to young children as a source of labor (abandoned past parents)
         3. Under care of local parishes, parish officers frequently "apprenticed" orphans to factory owners where the parish saved money and factory had workers
      8. Apprenticed as young as 5, children were forced by law to labor for their "chief" for as many as xiv years and were housed, fed, and locked up nightly in houses
         1. The young workers received piffling or no pay and hours were commonly fourteen hours a 24-hour interval, 6 days a calendar week; harsh physical punishment maintained discipline
         2. Wholesale coercion of orphans as factory apprentices constituted exploitation and attracted the conscience of reformers and reinforced humanitarian attitudes towards children and their labor in the early nineteenth century
      9. The creation of the world'south first modern factories in the English cotton textile in the 1770s and 1780s industry was a major historical development and by 1831, the cotton wool textile industry deemed for 22 percent of the country's entire industrial production
   3. The Problem of Energy
      1. The growth of the cotton textile industry might have been cut short if the water from rivers and streams had remained the primary source of power for the new factories, but a solution was establish to the problem of energy and power
      2. Adult humans need 2,000 to 4,000 calories daily to only fuel their bodies, piece of work, and survive and have constructed machines to convert on form on free energy into another
         1. More efficient use of water and wind in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries enabled human to accomplish more than and order in the eighteenth century continued to rely on plants, and humans and animals performed most piece of work
         2. The state was the principal source of raw materials needed for industrial production, which was difficult to aggrandize (needed to produce more)
      3. The shortage of energy had go sever in England by the eighteenth century
         1. Almost of the forests of medieval England had been replaced past fields of grain and hay and forest was in ever-shorter supply yet however remained important
         2. Woods was the primary source of heat for all homes and industries and the key to transportation since ships and wagons were made of wood
         3. Wood and iron ore were bones raw materials of the fe industry equally processed forest (charcoal) was mixed with iron ore in the boom furnace to produce sus scrofa atomic number 26
         4. The iron manufacture's ambition for wood was enormous and lay blank the forests of England also every bit parts of continental Europe; by 1740 the English atomic number 26 manufacture was failing but vast forests enabled Russia to get the world'southward leading producer of iron and later on a few decades Russia reached the barrier of inadequate energy
   4. The Steam Engine Quantum
      1. England looked toward its reserves of coal as an alternative to wood
         1. First used in England in the late Heart Ages equally a source of rut; past 1640 most homes in London were heated with coal and was used to brand various products
         2. Coal was non used to produce mechanical energy or to ability machinery
      2. One pound of proficient bituminous coal contains about 3,500 calories of rut energy and a difficult-working miner could dig out 500 pounds of coal a day using hand tools
         1. An inefficient converter, which transforms only one pct of rut energy in coal into mechanical energy, produced 27 horsepower-hours of work from the 500 pounds of coal while the minder only produced most ane horsepower-hour
         2. Early steam engines were such inefficient converters and as more coal was produced, mines were dug deeper and were constantly filling with water
         3. Mechanical pumps, powered past animals walking in circles, had to be installed
      3. Thomas Savery (1698) & Thomas Newcomen (1705) invented the kickoff steam engines
         1. Both engines were extremely inefficient and burned coal to produce steam, which was then injected into a cylinder or reservoir; in Newcomen's engine, the steam in the cylinder was cooled, creating a partial vacuum, which allowed the force per unit area of the earth's atmosphere to push the piston in the cylinder and operate a pump
         2. In the early 1760s, a gifted young Scot named James Watt was drawn to a written report of the steam engine (University of Glasgow) and saw why the Newcomen engine was so inefficient—cylinder was being heated and cooled every piston stroke
         3. Watt added a dissever condenser where the steam could be condensed without cooling the cylinder and profoundly increased the efficiency of the steam engine
         4. Watt partnered with a wealthy, progressive toymaker that provided a hazard capital and a manufactory and from manufacturers such as cannonmaker John Wilkinson (bore cylinders), Watt was able to purchase precision parts; these parts immune Watt to create an effective vacuum and regulate a complex engine
      4. The steam engine of Watt was the Industrial Revolution'due south most fundamental advance in technology and people had unlimited power at their disposal; the steam engine provide even more coal and began to replace waterpower during the 1780s
      5. The English atomic number 26 manufacture was transformed and the apply of steam-driven bellows in boom furnaces helped ironmakers switch over from limited charcoal to unlimited coke in the smelting of pig iron; Henry Cort adult the puddling furnace which allowed sus scrofa atomic number 26 to exist refined in turn with coke and developed steam-powered rolling mills
      6. The economical consequence of the innovations was a great boom in the English fe manufacture (17,000 tons in 1740, 68,000 tons in 1788, and three,000,000 tons in 1844)
      7. Iron became the cheap, basic, indispensable building block of the economy
   5. The Coming of the Railroads
      1. The second half of the eighteenth century saw extensive construction of roads but passenger traffic benefited nigh and overland shipment of freight, relying on horsepower, was limited and expensive (inventors tried to use steam power solution)
      2. As early as 1800, an American ran a "steamer on wheels" and English engineers created steam cars but horses continued to reign highways and streets for the century
      3. The coal industry had been using plank roads and rails to move coal wagons in mines and the surface considering rails reduced friction and allowed carry of heavier loads
      4. In 1816 a stronger rail was developed, George Stephenson congenital an effective loco-motive in 1825 and in 1830, his Rocket sped down the rails of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway at 16 miles per 60 minutes (world's first important railroad)
      5. The line from Liverpool to Manchester was a fiscal and technical success and many private companies were quickly organized to build more runway lines
         1. Companies had to go permission from Parliament and pay for the rights of way and within 20 years, they had completed the master torso lines of Bully Britain
         2. The railroad dramatically reduced the cost and uncertainty of shipping freight overland and this advance had many economic consequences
         3. Markets had tended to be pocket-sized and local but as the bulwark of loftier transportation cost were lowered, they became larger and even nationwide
         4. Larger markets encouraged larger factories in the growing number of industries and such factories could make appurtenances cheaply and provided severe competition
      6. The structure of railroads contributed to the growth of a class of urban workers and although rural workers did not leave their jobs to go work in factories, the building of railroads created a strong demand for labor, especially unskilled labor
         1. Many farm laborers and peasants, accepted to temporary employment, went to build railroads, life dorsum dwelling in the hamlet seemed dull and many men drifted to towns in search of work—with the companies, in structure, and in factories
         2. By the time they had sent for their family, they had become urban workers
      7. The railroad changed the outlook and values of the unabridged society and as the last and culminating invention of the Industrial Revolution, the railroad increased the speed of the new age (by 1850, trains were traveling downwards the tracks at l miles per hour)
      8. Joseph M.W. Turner and Claude Monet succeeded in expression and leading railway engineers Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Thomas Brassey became idols of their 24-hour interval
   6. Industry and Population
      1. In 1851, the Swell Exposition, a famous industrial fair, was held in London in the new Crystal Palace, an architectural masterpiece made of drinking glass and iron (now arable)
      2. Uk produced two-thirds of the earth'south coal and well-nigh 1-half fe and cotton wool cloth and in 1860, Britain produced 20% of the world's output of industrial goods
      3. Britain became the showtime industrial nation and as the economy increased the produc-tion, the gross national product (GNP) rose fourfold betwixt 1780 and 1851 and the population increased from nine million to almost xx-1 one thousand thousand during that time
      4. Historians believe that more people meant a more mobile labor force where there were many young workers but contemporaries were less optimistic about the growth
         1. Thomas Malthus ( Essay on the Principle of Population ) argued that population would tend to grow faster than the food supply and immature people had to limit the growth of population past the old tried-and-truthful means of marrying late in life
         2. English leading economist David Ricardo argued that the pressure of population growth would cause wages to sink to subsistence level ("the dismal science")
         3. Economist Keynes said of the Bully Depression, "nosotros are all dead in the long run."
      5. Until the 1820s, or even the 1840s, contemporary observers concluded that the economy and total population were racing neck and cervix, with the outcome unknown
      6. Some other problem was that maybe workers, farmers, and ordinary people did not get their rightful share of the new wealth while the rich got richer and poor got poorer
2. Industrialization in Continental Europe
   1. National Variations
      1. A per capita companion of levels of industrialization is a comparison of how much average industrial product was available to each person in a country in a given year
      2. In 1750, all countries were fairly close together and that United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland was simply slightly alee of France and that U.k. had opened up a noticeable lead over all continental countries past 1800; gap widened equally the British Industrial Revolution accelerated
      3. Tertiary, variations in the timing and in the extent of industrialization in the continental powers and the United States are also apparent; Belgium rich in iron and coal, led in adopting Britain'south new technology, and French republic consistently developed gradually
      4. By 1913, Germany was rapidly endmost in while the United states had already passed
      5. Finally, All the European states (As well equally the United States, Canada, and Nippon) managed to enhance per capita industrial levels in the nineteenth century but stood in contrasted to most non-Western countries, most notably in China and Republic of india
      6. Rates of wealth and power creating industrial evolution, which heightened inequality in Europe, also magnified inequities between Europe and rest of the world
   2. The Challenge of Industrialization
      1. Throughout Europe the eighteenth century was an era of agricultural improvement, population increase, expanding foreign merchandise, and growing cottage manufacture
      2. When the stride of English industry began to accelerate in the 1780s, continental businesses began to adopt new methods and at get-go the Continent was close backside
         1. While English industry maintained the momentum of the 1780s, on the Continent, the political and economic upheavals that bean with the French Revolution disrupted trade, created runaway inflation, and foster social anxiety
         2. State of war severed normal communications betwixt England and the Continent handicapping continental efforts to use the new British machinery and technology
         3. The widening gap mad information technology more than difficult, if not impossible, for other countries to follow the British pattern in energy and industry after peace was restored in 1815
         4. British technology had get and so advanced that few engineers exterior England understood information technology and the technology of steampower had grown much more than expensive which involved investments in atomic number 26 and coal (required existence of railroads)
         5. Landowners and regime officials were often suspicious of the new form of industry and changes; disadvantages slowed the spread of modern industry
      3. After 1815, continental countries that faced the British challenge had few advantages
         1. Continental countries had a rich tradition of putting-out enterprise, merchant capitalists and skilled urban artisans (ability to suit and survive in new market)
         2. Continental capitalists did not need to develop their ain advanced technology and rather could borrow the new methods developed in Nifty United kingdom
         3. European countries such as French republic and Russian federation had strong independent govern-ments, which did not fall under foreign political control and could fashion economic polices to serve their ain interests
   3. Agents of Industrialization
      1. The British tried to go along their secrets to themselves and until 1825, it was illegal for artisans and skilled mechanics to leave United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and until 1843, the consign of cloth machinery and other equipment was forbidden; many ambitious workers left illegally
      2. William Cockerill, a Lancaster carpenter, began building cotton-spinning equipment in Belgium (1799) and in 1817 son John Cockerill, converted the palace Liege into an industrial enterprise, which produced mechanism, steam engines, and locomotives
         1. Cockerill'southward plants became an industrial nervus heart and skilled British workers came illegally to work for Cockerill, and some went on to establish their companies
         2. Newcomers brought the latest plans and secrets to Cockerill; British technicians and skilled workers were a powerful force in the spread of early on industrialization
      3. A second agent were talented entrepreneurs such equally Fritz Harkort (business concern pioneer)
         1. Serving in England as a Prussian army officer, Harkort was impressed with what he saw and ready store in a castle in Ruhr Valley, Germany ("Watt of Federal republic of germany")
         2. Harkort looked to England for mechanics and he imported thick iron boilers that he needed from England at great (had to be dismantled and shipped separately)
         3. Despite all the problems, Harkort built and sold engines, winning fame and praise simply efforts over sixteen years resulted in big financial losses and in 1832, he was forced out of his visitor by his financial backers, who wanted to reduce losses
         4. Continental industrialization normally brought substantial only uneven expansion of handicraft manufacture; rise income of middle class created foreign demand
      4. A third strength was government (frequently helped business people in continental countries)
         1. After 1815, French republic was suddenly flooded with cheaper, better English language goods and the authorities laid high tariffs on English language imports to protect the French economic system and the continental governments bore the cost of building roads and canals
         2. In an endeavour to tie the independent nation together, the Belgian government decided to construct a state-endemic railroad arrangement (stimulated heavy industry)
         3. The Prussian government guaranteed that the state treasury would pay the interest and principal on railroad bonds if the individual companies where unable to practice and railroad investors in Prussia ran little risk and capital was quickly raised
         4. Regime helped pay for railroads, the leading sector in continental industrial-ization; Friedrich Listing reflected government's part in industrialization and con-sidered the growth of modern industry of utmost importance because manufac-turing was a master ways of increasing people'due south well-being (defend the nation)
         5. List ( National System of Political Economy ) focused on the applied policies of railroad building and the tariff; he supported the formation of a customs union ( Zollverein ) among the dissever German states—tariff wedlock came around in 1834 and too he supported a high protective tariff allowing infant industries to develop
      5. Banks played a larger and more than creative office on the Continent than in England
         1. Previously, almost all banks in Europe had been private, organized as secretive partnerships, and all agile partners were liable for all the debts of the firm and partners of individual banks tended to be quite conservative and avoided risks
         2. In the 1830s two important Belgian banks received permission from the authorities to establish themselves as corporations enjoying limited liability; a stockholder could lose only his original investment in the bank's common stock
         3. Publicizing the risk-reducing advantage of express liability, Belgian banks were able to attract shareholders and became industrial banks (promoted industry)
         4. Similar corporate banks became important in France and Germany in the 1850s and 1860s and they established and developed many railroads and many companies working in heavy industry and the most famous bank was Credit Mobilier of Paris founded by Isaac and Emile Pereire, journalists from Bordeaux
      6. The combined efforts of skilled workers, entrepreneurs, governments, and industrial banks meshed successfully between 1850 and the fiscal crash of 1873
      7. In Belgium, Federal republic of germany, and French republic, key indicators of industrial development—such as railway mileage, atomic number 26 and coal production, and steam engine capacity—increased at average annual rates of 5 to 10 compounded
3. Upper-case letter and Labor
   1. The New Class of Factory Owners
      1. Industrial development brought new social relations and intensified long-standing problems betwixt capital and labor in both urban workshops and cottage industry
      2. New thinking about social relations led to the development of a new overarching interpretation—a new paradigm—regarding social relationships (grade consciousness)
      3. Manufacturers waged a abiding battle to cut their production costs and stay afloat as much of the profit had to go back into the business organisation for new and better machinery
      4. Artisans and skilled workers of exceptional ability had unparalleled opportunities and the ethnic and religious groups that had been discriminated confronting in the traditional occupations controlled by the landed aristocracy jumped at new changes; Quakers and Scots in England, Protestants and Jews dominated banking in Catholic France
      5. As factories grew larger, opportunities declined; formal instruction became more important for advancement and formal instruction at an advanced level was expensive
      6. In England, France, and Germany, leading industrialists were probable to have inherited their well-established enterprises and had a greater sense of course consciousness, fully aware that development had widened the gap betwixt themselves and their workers
   2. The New Manufactory Workers
      1. The countries that followed England were able to benefit from English experience in social and technical matters (conditions of European workers improved after 1850)
      2. The Industrial Revolution in England had critics, among the first were romantic poets
         1. William Blake (1757-1827) chosen the early factories "satanic mills" and protested against the hard life of London poor
         2. William Wordsworth lamented the devastation of the rural way of life and the pollution of land and water; workers ( Luddites ) attacked whole factories in northern England in 1812 and smashed the new machines (taking their jobs)
         3. Malthus and Ricardo concluded that workers would earn merely enough to stay alive
         4. Friedrich Engels, revolutionary and colleague of Karl Marx, published The Status of the Working Class in England , a reflection on eye classes and wrote new poverty of the industrial workers was worse (culprit—capitalism)
      3. Other observers believed that weather were improving for the working people
         1. Andrew Ure wrote in 1835 in his study of the cotton fiber industry that atmospheric condition in about factories were non harsh and were even quite practiced
         2. Edwin Chadwick, a conscientious government official, concluded that the laboring community was able to buy more of the necessities and minor luxuries
      4. If working people suffered a bully economic decline, every bit Engels and socialists affirm-ed, so the purchasing power of the working person's wages must have declined
         1. There was little or no increment in the purchasing power of the average British worker from about 1780 to 1820 (period from 1792 to 1815 -- state of war with France)
         2. Only later on 1820, and especially later on 1840, did wages rise essentially, so that the average worker earned and consumed 50 percentage more in 1850 than in 1770
         3. The hours in the average workweek increased and workers earned more
         4. The state of war years colored early experience of mod industrial life in somber tones
      5. A way to consider the workers' standard of living is to wait at what they purchased
         1. Workers ate food of college nutritional quality as the Industrial Revolution progressed and diets became varied—potatoes, dairy products, fruits, vegetables
         2. Clothing improve, but housing for working people probably deteriorated
      6. Per capita use of goods supports the position that the standard of living of the working classes rose, at least moderately, after the long wars with France
   3. Weather condition of Work
      1. The first factories were cotton mills in the 1770s and cottage workers accustomed to the putting-out system, were reluctant to work in factories every bit the piece of work was unlike
         1. In the mill, workers had to keep up with the motorcar and follow its tempo and had to show upward every day and work long, monotonous hours (manufacturing plant whistle)
         2. Cottage workers set their own footstep and could interrupt their work when they wanted to as long every bit they met the deadlines for that week
         3. Early factories resembled English language poorhouses increased cottage workers' fear
      2. The cottage worker's reluctance to work in the factories prompted early on cotton wool factory owners to turn to abandoned and pauper children for their labor (contracted officials)
         1. Pauper children were badly treated and overworked in mills, and in the eighteenth century, semi-forced kid labor seemed necessary and was socially accepted
         2. By 1790, the utilize of pauper apprentices was in decline was forbidden in 1802
         3. Many factories were existence built in urban areas were they could use steampower other than waterpower and attract a workforce more than easily then in the countryside
         4. People came from near and far to work in the cities, both as factory workers and as laborers, builders, and domestic servants (helped modify the system)
      3. People often came to the mills and the mines every bit family unit units and the mill or mine owner bargained with the head of the family; mothers and children supported father
      4. The preservation of the family every bit an economic unit of measurement in the factories mad the surroundings more tolerable during the early stages of industrialization
         1. The presence of the whole family meant the children and adults worked the aforementioned, dreadful long hours; twelve-hour shifts were normal in cotton wool mills in 1800
         2. Some very young children were employed solely to go along the family together
         3. Jedediah Strutt believed children should be at least ten years old to work in the mills; adult workers were not interested in limiting the minimum working age or hours of their children as long as family members worked next
      5. Enlightened employers and social reforms argued that humane standards were necessary, used widely circulated parliamentary reports to entreatment to public opinion
         1. Robert Owen, a successful manufacturer in Scotland, testified in 1816 that employing children nether x years of historic period as manufactory workers was "injurious to the children, and non beneficial to the proprietors" (tiresome growth and learning)
         2. Owen had raised the historic period of employment (twelve) in his mills and was promoting education for young children and workers also provide testimony every bit such hearings
      6. The Mill Act of 1833 limited the factory workday for children between ix and thirteen to eight hours and that of adolescents (fourteen to eighteen) to twelve hours, although the act made no effort to regulated hours at home or in small businesses
         1. The police also prohibited the factory employment of children nether ix years erstwhile, who were to exist enrolled in the elementary schools that manufacturing plant owners were required to plant and the employment of children declined rapidly
         2. The Factory Act broke the pattern of whole families working together in the factory because efficiency required standardized shifts for all workers
      7. Many manufacturer and builders hired workers through subcontractors who paid them on the footing of what the subcontractors and their crew produced and in turn, the subcontractors hired and fired their own workers, many who were friends and relation
      8. The relationship betwixt subcontractor and work crew was close and personal
      9. Ties of kinship was of import for newcomers, who often traveled great distances to find work and many urban workers in Great Britain were from Ireland, forced out by population growth and deteriorating economic weather from 1817 on
      10. Even though Irish workers were not related directly past blood, they were held together by ethnic and religious ties and like other immigrant groups, they worked together
   4. The Sexual Division of Labor
      1. Past tradition, certain jobs were divers by sex but tasks might go to either sexual practice considering particular circumstances dictated family'due south response in its battle for economical survival
      2. Woman plant lonely limited task opportunities and were by and large denied adept jobs at good wages outside the house after the first kid arrived (housework, child care)
         1. Married women were much less likely to work full time for wages outside the house after the commencement child arrived only earn small amounts in the putting-out system
         2. Married women who did work for wages unremarkably came from the poor, desperate families, where the husbands were poorly paid, sick, unemployed, or missing
         3. The poor married women were joined past groups of immature unmarried women, who worked full fourth dimension merely only in certain jobs; confined to low-paying, dead-end jobs
      3. Scholars stress the role of male-dominated arts and crafts unions in denying women access to good jobs and in reducing them to unpaid maids dependent on their husbands
      4. Others believe that the gender roles were issue of economical and biological factors to explain why women were unwilling to halt the emergence of a division of labor
         1. The new and unfamiliar subject field of the clock and the machine was specially hard on married women; factory subject conflicted with child care
         2. Running a household in conditions of archaic urban poverty was an extremely demanding chore in its own right; everything had to be done on foot such as the shopping and feeding the family and another brutal job didn't appeal to women
         3. The desire of males to monopolize the best opportunities and hold women downward
         4. The growth of factories and mines brought unheard-of opportunities for girls and boys to mix on the chore, free of familial supervision and such intimacy likewise led to the illegitimacy explosion that began in the eighteenth century and the segregation of jobs by gender was to help control the sexuality of the working youth
      5. The centre-form men leading the research about the British coal manufacture failed to appreciate the concrete of the girls and women but were shocked to see them without shirts and assumed the prevalence of immoral sex with male miners
         1. The Mines Human action of 1842 prohibited underground work for all women equally well as for boys under 10 and some women protested against beingness excluding from coal mining, which paid higher wages than most other jobs open to women
         2. But girls and the women who had worked secret who were role of families that could manage economically, were by and large pleased with the police force
   5. ​​The Early on Labor Motility
      1. ​Many kinds of employment changed slowly; subcontract and domestic labor continued to be near common, and small-scale handicraft production remained unchanged in many trades which helped eased the transition to industrial civilization (small workshops)
      2. Working course solidarity and class consciousness developed, particularly in the north of England, and many employers adopted the feeling that unions were a form of brake on industrial growth
         1. The liberal concept of economic freedom gathered strength in the late eighteenth century and the British government attacked monopolies, guilds, and combination
         2. The Combination Deed of 1799 passed by Parliament outlawed unions and strikes
         3. In 1813 to 1814, Parliament repealed the one-time and disregarded the constabulary of 1563 regulating the wags of artisans and the conditions of apprenticeship
      3. Workers who continued to organize and strike disregarded the Combination Acts and Parliament repealed the Combination Acts in 1824 and unions were tolerated
      4. Robert Owen pioneered in industrial relations by combining firm discipline with business for the health, safety, and hours of his workers
         1. Owen tried to create a national matrimony of workers (the GNCTU), and then afterwards 1851 the craft unions ("new model unions") won benefits for their members
         2. The most famous of these unions was the Amalgamated Society of Engineers
      5. Chartism was a workers' political movement that sought universal male suffrage, shorter piece of work hours, and inexpensive dewdrop; workers developed a sense of their own identity

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Aboukhadijeh, Feross. "Affiliate 22: The Revolution in Energy and Manufacture" StudyNotes.org. Study Notes, LLC., 29 Dec. 2013. Spider web. 24 Apr. 2022. <https://world wide web.apstudynotes.org/european-history/outlines/chapter-22-the-revolution-in-energy-and/>.

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